Modern foreign language education in England

Approximate read time: 25 minutes

On 8 January 2026, the House of Lords is scheduled to debate the following motion:

Baroness Coussins (Crossbench) to move that this House takes note of measures, such as visa waivers, to improve the supply chain of qualified modern foreign language teachers and the sustainability of language learning in schools and universities.

As education is a devolved matter, this briefing will focus on the provision of modern foreign language education in England.

1. How are modern foreign languages taught?

1.1 Primary and secondary schools

The national curriculum must be taught in all local-authority maintained schools in England.^[1] As part of this, students at key stages 2 and 3 (ages 7 to 14) must be taught a modern foreign language (MFL).^[2] The government has published programmes of study which provide further details on what pupils should be taught at each level.^[3] The government recently published the outcome of an independent review of the curriculum, assessment and qualifications system in England.^[4] This review recommended that the programme of study for key stage 2 should be updated.^[5]

At key stage 4 (ages 14 to 16), MFLs are not compulsory national curriculum subjects. However, all pupils in maintained schools have a statutory entitlement to be able to study a subject in four entitlement areas, which includes MFLs.^[6] Although MFLs are not compulsory at key stage 4, they are encouraged through the English Baccalaureate (EBacc). The EBacc is a performance measure for schools which requires students to take GCSEs in five subjects, one of which is a modern foreign or classical language.^[7]

Currently, academies and free schools (state-funded schools outside of local authority control) do not have to teach the national curriculum.^[8] Despite this, many follow it at least in part and such schools are also required to provide a broad and balanced curriculum. However, this could change due to provisions in the Children’s Wellbeing and Schools Bill that would introduce a requirement for academies to teach the national curriculum in the same way as state-funded schools.^[9] The bill is due to be debated at report stage in the House of Lords in January 2026.^[10]

Independent schools also do not have to follow the national curriculum. However, these schools must similarly have in place a curriculum that covers a broad range of subjects.^[11]

1.2 Post-16 education

In post-16 education, students have access to a greater choice of subjects and types of qualification to study, with no compulsory subjects or national curriculum for this age group.^[12] Many post-16 providers offer MFL AS and A-levels, with different languages on offer at different providers. The Department for Education has published subject content guidance which sets out the knowledge, understanding and skills common to all MFL AS and A-levels.^[13]

2. What are the benefits of studying modern foreign languages?

In 2023, the previous Conservative government set out some of the benefits of speaking a second language.^[14] These included economic benefits both personally and for the economy as a whole. For example, the then government cited a 2022 report by RAND Corporation which said a 10% increase in UK pupils learning Spanish or French at key stages 3 and 4 could increase UK GDP over 30 years from £9.1bn to £9.7bn or £9.5bn respectively.^[15] The then government also said that speaking an additional language can increase lifetime earnings by 2%.^[16]

In addition, the then government highlighted that research has shown that students who study a second language perform better across a range of academic subjects compared to those who do not study a second language.^[17] It said the brain’s plasticity is heightened when learning a language and this leads to increased cognitive flexibility and adaptability. Numerous studies have supported the claim that learning a second language affects a person’s brain, with differences depending on the age of the person when they learn the language.^[18]

3. Are fewer students studying modern foreign languages?

3.1 GCSEs

In 2004, the then Labour government removed the requirement for students to study a language at key stage 4 (GCSE level). This change led to a significant reduction in the number of students taking MFL GCSEs.^[19] However, following this initial reduction, Department for Education statistics have shown that since 2009–10 the number of entries for GCSEs in a MFL has not significantly changed.^[20] The main differences over the period were the growth in the number of entries for Spanish compared to a decline in French and German.

Figure 1. Number of entries for modern foreign languages as a percentage of all GCSE entries 2009–10 to 2024–25

3.2 A-levels

Department for Education data has also shown a decline in the number of entries for MFL A-levels since the mid-1990s.^[21] Of the three main languages studied, Spanish is the only MFL to have seen an increase in the number of entries during this period.

Figure 2. Number of entries for modern foreign languages as a percentage of all A-level entries 1995–96 to 2023–24

3.3 University

In addition, the number of undergraduate students studying MFLs at universities in the UK has declined in recent years.^[22] For example, for the three main languages studied:

• 1,150 students were accepted onto French studies courses in 2019, compared to 750 in 2024, a 35% decrease.
• 430 students were accepted onto German and Scandinavian studies courses in 2019 compared to 280 in 2024, a 35% decrease.
• 1,220 students were accepted onto Iberian studies courses in 2019, compared to 810 in 2024, a 34% decrease.

3.4 International comparison

A University of Cambridge study reported that English students were less likely to study a MFL than their European counterparts: 45.7% of eligible students in England took a language GCSE whereas 97.9% of upper secondary students in the EU studied at least one foreign language.^[23] However, the recent curriculum review said that there is evidence that many other English-speaking nations face similar challenges with low-take up of languages.^[24]

4. Why are fewer students studying modern foreign languages?

4.1 Shortage of specialist teachers

In 2024, the House of Commons Education Committee said that teacher recruitment had been “a persistent challenge for over a decade” despite government action to address the issue.^[25] The committee noted that many subjects had experienced teacher shortages, but that particular subjects had been “acutely impacted”, including MFL. A lack of specialist teachers can make it hard for education providers to put on courses in those subjects.

4.1.1 Teacher training targets

Each year, the government sets targets for the number of trainees to start postgraduate initial teacher training (ITT).^[26] In recent years, these targets have not been met.

For the 2025–26 academic year, the target was set at 1,460 for modern languages.^[27] The Department for Education has said that 93% of this target was met. This is the highest percentage that has been achieved in recent years; however, the target was also lower.

Table 1. Percentage of the target for postgraduate initial teacher training met for MFL 2019–20 to 2025–26

(Department for Education, ‘‘Table 1.2: ITT new entrants and recruitment targets by subject’ from ‘Initial teacher training census’’, 11 December 2025)

Research has shown that these shortages are felt by schools. For example, the British Council recently reported that two-thirds of secondary schools that responded to a survey said recruiting qualified MFL teachers was a problem.^[28] The research found that the issue was “more acute” in areas of social deprivation. Although the study found that the problem was also experienced by independent schools, it was to a lesser extent. Just over half of the independent schools surveyed said recruitment of qualified MFL teachers was a problem.

4.1.2 Reasons for low recruitment and retention

The House of Commons Education Committee has explored some of the factors driving low recruitment and retention of MFL teachers.^[29] The committee said that the value of financial incentives such as bursaries can contribute to subject shortages, particularly where teacher pay is relatively low compared to other sectors. It also said that workload was an issue. The committee quoted René Koglbauer, chair of the board of trustees at the Association for Language Learning, who argued that there were other careers for those with language qualifications which did not have the “stressful environment that a school would present”.

In addition, Mr Koglbauer said that the recruitment of international MFL teachers has become more challenging in recent years.^[30] He said that prior to the UK’s exit from the EU and the teacher supply crisis in Europe, domestic teacher shortages were mitigated through European teachers who had been unable to find positions in their own countries. However, he said this had “more or less stopped”. The digital newspaper Schools Week has also highlighted that the government’s Brexit deal led to many EU overseas nationals losing their automatic right to work in the UK and added in extra steps for them to secure qualified teacher status (QTS).^[31] Schools Week has additionally noted that there is a global shortage of teachers impacting all subjects which it said was “pitting the UK against other countries in a ‘global tussle’ for skilled educators”.^[32] It said that the UK was looking to other countries to fill teacher vacancies, noting a recruitment drive in Jamaica. It also noted that British teachers were being “lured overseas” often to Gulf States.

4.2 Lack of provision

4.2.1 Key stage 4

All students studying for their GCSEs have a statutory entitlement to be able to study a subject in four entitlement areas, which includes MFLs.^[33] However, schools are able to decide how to position language study in their curriculum, either as a core or optional subject.^[34] This has led to differences in the approaches taken by schools, with some deprioritising languages. Katrin Kohl, a professor of German at the University of Oxford, has also argued that funding pressures in schools have meant that the number of languages taught “is the first to go”, with German in particular often “the casualty”.^[35]

4.2.2 Post-16

A lack of access to MFL subjects has also been shown to be an issue post-16. In September 2025, the Times reported that A-level data from the previous year’s exams showed that a third of state sixth-forms in England did not have a single pupil studying French, Spanish or German.^[36] It said that many sixth forms, including grammar schools and top-performing comprehensives, no longer offered any core modern languages due to a lack of demand and a shortage of teachers. For example, it highlighted that Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre does not offer languages and has said that it only offers A-level subjects that “Russell Group and other universities value most”. The increasing popularity of STEM subjects has also been cited as a possible reason for the fall in demand. This lack of provision has left some students having to travel longer distances to find a sixth form which provided MFL A-levels. However, the issue was not found to be as prevalent in private schools as only a sixth were found to have no students studying French, Spanish or German A-levels.

Also focusing on this issue, an article in the Guardian in 2019 cited funding challenges as a reason behind the lack of sixth forms offering MFL courses.^[37] It reported that half of sixth forms in schools and colleges had been forced to drop A-levels in MFLs as a result of “totally inadequate” funding of post-16 education. It said that school and college leaders had reported that funding cuts and cost increases had made it “impossible” to put on courses for small numbers of students.

In recent years, several universities have also withdrawn foreign language courses and, in some cases, closed entire departments. In November 2025, the Guardian reported that over the past five years, nearly 50 centres of French, German, Italian and Iberian studies have closed or shrunk, with proposals to close more in the future.^[38] Universities have cited a lack of demand and financial difficulties as some of the reasons behind the closures.^[39]

4.2.3 Socio-economic disparities

Research has shown that a school’s ability to position languages as an optional subject has led to socio-economic disparities in who studies MFLs. A study of state schools in England by the University of Cambridge found that while a student’s socio-economic background does not have a significant impact on their desire to study languages, poorer students are disproportionately concentrated in schools that give languages lower priority.^[40] This has significantly reduced the chances of poorer students studying a language after the age of 14.

The study also found that GCSE language scores overall were better in schools that offered a wider choice of languages.^[41] Average scores rose by almost a quarter of a grade. However, research from 2023 revealed that two-thirds of state secondary schools in England only taught one foreign language.^[42]

4.3 A ‘vicious circle’

Commenting on these issues, various stakeholders have referred to a ‘vicious circle’ or used similar language. For example, Professor Charles Forsdick, lead fellow for languages at the British Academy, has argued that the fall in the number of students studying MFL and the lack of specialist teachers have formed a “vicious circle”:

Schools struggle to recruit and retain language teachers and assistants, meaning language provision is becoming increasingly limited in schools. This reduces the number of students studying languages at GCSE and A-level, which, despite the good efforts of university departments to innovate in their provision, leads to declining registrations for languages degrees—and fewer people able to use languages in their careers or train as languages teachers.^[43]

The House of Commons Education Committee has similarly used the phrase a “vicious circle” when discussing the link between the issues of teacher shortages and a lack of students studying MFLs.^[44]

Neil Kenny, a professor of French at the University of Oxford and the British Academy’s lead fellow for languages, has also noted “the self-reinforcing cycle of supply and demand”.^[45] He said that declining interest by students had resulted in schools having to offer fewer options and that fewer pupils studying languages at school had resulted in fewer studying them at university, leading to teacher shortages.

4.4 Other factors

Dr Abigail Parrish, lecturer in languages education at the University of Sheffield, has argued that there are several “clear reasons” why MFLs are unpopular with students.^[46] She said that historically languages have been graded more harshly than other subjects and that the curriculum has not taken account of the cultural aspects of learning a language. The recent curriculum review also noted that outcomes for MFLs are comparatively lower than those in other subjects.^[47] It said that data and research have shown that students who have similar prior attainment are less likely to achieve a GCSE grade 4 or above in French, German and Spanish than in English and Maths. The government said that perceived difficulty and harsher grading have been cited as factors behind this. It also said that recent reforms were aimed at addressing these issues, but these were still in their infancy, and it was too soon to comment on whether they have had the intended effect.

Dr Parrish also claimed that there was a perception that due to the global dominance of English, learning a language is only useful if it will be needed for work. In addition, she argued that while students are interested in learning a language, they are not interested in taking a MFL degree. Similarly, research by the British Council highlighted that students do not study MFLs at GCSE because they do not see themselves using a second language in their future career.^[48] This is despite a study by the University of Portsmouth which showed hundreds of vacancies where an additional language was required, with German being the most requested language.^[49]

5. What is being done to support modern foreign language education?

5.1 Government policy

5.1.1 Measures to support recruitment

In its 2024 general election manifesto, the Labour Party said it would recruit an additional 6,500 new expert teachers.^[50] It stated that it would get more teachers into shortage subjects as well as tackle recruitment and retention issues. Following the election, the government repeated that it needed to get more teachers into certain subjects and said this included MFL.^[51]

In response to parliamentary written questions on the topic, the government has set out several measures which aim to help recruitment of both domestic and international MFL teachers. Several of these are financial incentives. For example, the languages teacher training scholarship is a £22,000 scholarship available to trainee teachers of French, German and Spanish, including non-UK citizens, that meet the eligibility requirements.^[52] The government has said that there is no cap for recipients of this scholarship and that 175 is a “notional target” which enables the British Council to adequately plan recruitment and resourcing. Bursaries are also available to all trainee language teachers, including non-UK citizens.^[53]

The government has also noted an international relocation payment that provided £10,000 for overseas nationals who relocated to England in the 2023–24 and 2024–25 academic years to teach languages or physics if they met the eligibility criteria.^[54] This payment was intended to cover the cost of visas, the immigration health surcharge and other relocation expenses.^[55] However, in September 2025 the government announced that this two-year pilot would not be extended.

In a recent press release, the government also said it would offer schools £20,000 to cover the cost of training apprentices in MFLs.^[56] This would mean that apprentices would not pay anything for their training and would earn a salary during this period before moving to a qualified teacher salary.

In addition, the government has highlighted work aimed at tackling retention issues.^[57] It said that it had made available a range of resources to help address teacher workload and wellbeing and had supported schools to introduce flexible working practices. More recently, it has said measures included teacher pay awards of almost 10% over two years and working with education providers through the education staff wellbeing charter.^[58]

5.1.2 Position on visa waivers

In December 2024, the government was asked by Baroness Coussins if it had any plans to introduce a visa waiver for teachers of MFL from other countries who had received a job offer from a school in England.^[59] Responding, the government said it had no plans to introduce a visa waiver. It noted that language teachers are “free to use the immigration system” and should be able to obtain a skilled worker visa if they have a job offer from a school that has been approved by the Home Office, are able to speak, read, write and understand English, and are paid at least the minimum of the relevant teacher pay range. The Department for Education has published guidance for schools on recruiting teachers from overseas which included an overview on how to sponsor skilled worker visas.^[60]

5.1.3 Erasmus+ programme

On 17 December 2025, the government announced that the UK would join the Erasmus+ scheme in 2027.^[61] It said that the programme would create various educational and training opportunities including for British school pupils and students in higher or further education. For example, further education students would be able to undertake study periods or work placements abroad and school groups would be able to participate in exchanges and visits.

The UK was previously part of the Erasmus+ programme prior to Brexit.^[62] When the UK left the EU concerns were raised that the loss of the programme would impact on the attractiveness of language degrees.^[63] Students studying languages usually spend the third year of their degree studying or working abroad and commentators had argued that this was the main attraction of many courses. However, they said that due to the loss of access to the Erasmus+ programme, securing placements would become more challenging. The then Conservative government introduced the Turing scheme to replace Erasmus+ which offered funding for placements worldwide.^[64] However, stakeholders argued that the new scheme did not focus on improving language skills.^[65]

5.2 Other measures

In its 2025 report on language trends in England, the British Council highlighted several programmes aimed at improving MFL education.^[66] These included:

• The National Consortium for Languages Education (NCLE), based at University College London, aims to support high-quality language education and increase uptake of languages qualifications at key stages 4 and 5 in English state-funded schools. The consortium recognises and follows the recommendations and principles from Sir Ian Bauckham’s 2016 ‘Modern foreign languages pedagogy review’. In 2023, the NCLE created a network of 19 lead hub schools across England. Each of these hubs delivered training to up to seven partner schools to improve standards of language teaching and learning. The programme focuses on French, German and Spanish as they are the majority of GCSE entries, with particular focus on German due to decreasing entries at GCSE and A-level.
• The Oak National Academy is an independent public body that works in partnership to improve pupil outcomes and close the disadvantage gap by supporting teachers and enabling pupils to access a high-quality curriculum. Teachers can use the academy’s resources for free, and the academy is developing resources for MFLs in both primary and secondary schools.
• The Mandarin Excellence Programme is delivered by the Institute of Education in partnership with the British Council. In its ninth year, the programme supports and promotes the uptake of Mandarin. It was first funded by the government in 2016, and it has been estimated that over 13,000 pupils enrolled in the programme would be ‘on track towards fluency’ in 2025.

5.3 Calls for further support

Various individuals and organisations have argued for changes to be made to MFL education in England to increase the number of students studying the subjects and improve recruitment of specialist teachers. Examples of some of the suggestions made are set out below.

5.3.1 Improving uptake

Dr Karen Forbes, associate professor in second language education at the University of Cambridge, has published research which showed that poorer students are more likely to miss out on studying a language at GCSE.^[67] As a result of her findings, Dr Forbes has focused on the choice of schools to position languages as either a core or optional subject at key stage 4. She has called for languages to be re-established as core subjects at GCSE across all schools, arguing that this would signal the importance of the subject and create more equitable opportunities for students. In the absence of such a policy change, Dr Forbes said that “something is better than nothing” and argued that national-level accountability measures such as the EBacc have helped to influence both schools and students. She also argued that broadening the choice of languages on offer is key to reducing inequalities between students and to raising both participation and attainment.

Nick Hillman, director of the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI), has linked some of the current problems with MFL education to the decision to stop languages being compulsory at key stage 4.^[68] He said that this policy could be reversed, but that the government would first need to address the shortage of teachers.

However, Dr Abigail Parrish has argued that making languages compulsory again is not the answer to the lack of students taking the subjects.^[69] She said that instead, the focus should be on changing the way the subject is perceived by students from being a general good to being of personal value. Dr Parrish also argued that harsh grading of MFL subjects needed to be addressed to increase participation.

Focusing on the issue of low uptake at universities, several professors of foreign languages have written for the Times Higher Education magazine arguing that universities could take action to bolster the number of students who choose a MFL degree.^[70] For example, they argued that universities could offer opportunities to study languages from scratch and form regional alliances.

5.3.2 Improving recruitment

In a 2025 report on the “languages crisis”, HEPI set out 10 recommendations for improving languages education.^[71] Its first recommendation related to ‘action on teacher recruitment’. It argued that schools are underequipped to support languages and that the UK government should ease the pathway for international language teachers. As part of this, it said the government should reinstate the international relocation payment for trainee teachers that was removed in April 2024. It also said that professional development for teachers to deliver plurilingual opportunities should be a priority. Other recommendations included offering alternative qualification pathways, revitalising language hubs, enhancing recognition or multilingualism and supporting British Sign Language.

In its report on teacher recruitment, training and retention, the House of Commons Education Committee made a number of conclusions and recommendations.^[72] These included that teacher salaries need to be attractive and competitive and bursaries need to be targeted so that the subjects struggling the most with recruitment receive the highest bursaries. The committee also called for improved communication of the different routes into teaching and encouragement for the return of former teachers and the entry of veterans into the profession. In addition, it called on the government to continue to promote and build on efforts to reduce teacher workload.

6. Read more

• Wendy Ayres-Bennett and Marco Hafner, ‘The economic value to the UK of speaking other languages’, Languages, Society and Policy Journal, July 2022

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This briefing was amended on 6 February 2026 to correct information about Dr Abigail Parrish.

Image by Kenny Eliason on Unsplash.